Australian Literature Is a Miror to Australians Essay Example

Australian Literature Is a Miror to Australians Essay Example Australian Literature Is a Miror to Australians Essay Australian Literature Is a Miror to Australians Essay Australian literature is a mirror to Australians How has the composer of your set text revealed aspects of Australian Culture Why Australians literature looks like a portrait of Australians. This mean to Australians that are literature is like a reflection that you can see in a mirror and that is very important to Australians. This is important and many Australians think that this is showing through Oodergoo Noonuccal poetry about why it is so important to Australians and how she says it also a strong way. These are showing through her poems Municipal Gum and Understand Old One. The reasons why I chose these poems is because in Municipal Gum she is comparing life in the city to the life in the country by doing this is has added a tree and in understand old one she is saying to her ancestors that if you were here now you could see how this country is now is so busy, not as peaceful as it used to be. Australian literature looks like a portrait of Australians this is how we look like in Australian just one big mirror of people that we believe is special to us. The composer has revealed the aspects of Australian culture is how the aboriginals when through their struggle with stolen identity , loss of culture and also their old life and then their new life, she has also discovered the white men settlement and how this has had a big impact on the lives of aboriginals. In Oodergoo poem Municipal Gumâ„ ¢ she is talking about a Gumtree in the middle of the city and not in the nature where it belong with her tribe we who this because of the quote on page 20 in the cool world of leafy forest halls and the wild birds calls this is referring to where to the tree belongs. In this poem she is comparing the new and the old world of the Aboriginals. The new world for the aboriginals is the hard black bitumenâ„ ¢ and the old world of living in the forest full of bird calls. The Gumtree represents the Aboriginals and their existence. The use of Juxtaposition in the poem is the life of living in the city and living in the country and also simile of describing the cart horse as castratedâ„ ¢ (broken) In the poem understand old one she is talking to one of her ancestors about the what the white peopleâ„ ¢ have done to Australia quote on page 26 what if you came back now she is explaining this to her ancestors about Australia and how busy it is. Australia is represented in this poem as towering stone gunyasâ„ ¢. There are quote in the poem of how she talks about Australia now the city roaring, towering stone gunyas, planes in the sky over swarms of cars just like things frantic in flight. The use of alliteration frantic and flightâ„ ¢ and also juxtaposition of the new Australia and the old Australia how Australia was peaceful and now it full of frantic and flight. Both of these poems are very strong and emotional, her poems are both similar in a way that they are both juxtaposed because in one poem she is talking about the life in the city and the life in the country and in understand old one the new Australia and the old Australia. Both of these poems are in a way very strong as she is explaining her life living in Australia.

Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs essays

Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs essays On March 21, 1998, I attended a ballet of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs at the Etherredge Center. The ballet began at 7:30p.m. and lasted almost two hours, but the time went by so quickly because the dancers were so captivating in their performance. Two of the performers were students at the University of South Carolina in Aiken, but most of the other girls were still in high school. The first dance of the evening was performed to a song composed by Prokofiev. The piece lasted four movements as the dancers changed back and forth between each movement. During the first movement of the song, all of the dancers came on the stage at one time to perform. The music was fast and in the major key. The woodwinds were playing and produced a light, airy sound. In the next movement only two dancers remained on the stage. The music became very soft and smooth flowing. The third movement was medium loud as the strings played, and then the piece became slow using staccato notes on the woodwinds. The final movement was fast as the violins were heard playing a loud playful sound with fast repetition. All of the dancers returned onto the stage for the ending as the piece came to a close. The second dance was done to a piece composed by Morsheba. The entire song was performed using only drums. There were soft echoes of voices heard in the distance as the dancers formed a circle. They were dressed in black as the danced on a slightly lit stage. They seemed to be performing a ceremonial or ritual dance like the Indians used to appease their gods. The piece ended with the fast, loud beating of the drums as the dancers fell to the floor. After the first two songs were finished, the story of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs began. The narrator spoke first and told about the birth of Snow White and what her wicked stepmother was planning to do to her. The evil Queen was the first one on stage. She danc...

Empowerment is an unrealistic concept. Discuss Essay

Empowerment is an unrealistic concept. Discuss - Essay Example The following paper critically discusses the disadvantages and advantages of empowerment by applying appropriate theories and practices of organisational motivation. Empowerment has grown popular amongst various management teams across the world (Robbins et al., 2011, p. 573). This widespread acknowledgement of its positive impacts on organisational output led to the development of a new management style. However, it is worth noting that empowerment is more than delegation as others see empowerment as an opportunity to reduce their workload. Employee empowerment is a common and often effective management strategy (On Safe Lines Consultancy, n.d., p. 6). Employee management gives employees a sense of autonomy and responsibility for decisions they make. Independence and responsibility should increase organizational responsiveness to issues as well as increase productivity. Employee empowerment also creates greater commitment towards the company’s goals since employees can take responsibility and make decisions on behalf of management. However, various factors an organisation can consider during empowerment include coordination throughout the organisation (On Safe Lines Consultancy, n.d., p. 4). Coordination largely calls for decentralized decisions and removal of approval from top management. The relationship between the employee and manager may become tenser as the boundaries of authority can be blurred at times. Trust is essential for empowerment to occur in an organisation (On Safe Lines Consultancy, n.d., p. 2). Management must develop a positive and productive environment that encourages employees to use their common sense and individual judgements. As a result, management strengthens the bond between managers and employees and makes the organisation more productive (Robbins et al., 2011, p. 573). In the process, a strengthened manager-employee bond results in an increase in earnings growth due to employee input. It is

Self esteem issues that arise for adults who have returned to edcation Essay

Self esteem issues that arise for adults who have returned to edcation - Essay Example Adult education is a serious effort made by government and voluntary agencies to provide a platform for the adults to improve their educational qualifications. It provides them a wide option of educational curricula, designed to utilise their increased knowledge and enhanced skills so that they can better rehabilitate in their social environment and improve their job prospects. Adult education also facilitates and provides a challenging atmosphere for the people who wish to diversify and follow a career in new areas. It therefore becomes all the more important that adults who wish to further their educational qualifications, are made to feel comfortable in an academically challenged atmosphere, without any embarrassment or other such psychological impediments. We would, thus, be taking the role of self esteem of the adults, who wish to pursue education in a changed atmosphere. It is seen that adults who are intending to either resume their education or the one who embark on adult literacy for advancing their careers, are faced with multitude of psychological problems which might hinder with their fair intentions and goals. Issues of self esteem are major impediments for a smooth adult education course because adults who convince themselves for the course are still sensitive to public comments and outlooks which may frown upon or look down on their endeavours as mere whims and wastage of good money on a lost cause. The main aim and objectives of the study are to find ways and means of providing people with incentives so that adults, who have had to leave their education for one or the other reasons, are able to resume their education with fresh zeal and motivation with higher self esteem. It is equally important that due consideration be given to their status as adults who have other priorities, so that they are not forced to compromise with their self esteem and ego, and as such, it is imperative to

To what extent do governments shape the global oil economy In your Essay

To what extent do governments shape the global oil economy In your analysis, consider the role of nature, industrial structure and war - Essay Example Constant discovery of new oil fields is necessary to avoid depletion of current reserves; however this is challenging from both economic and business perspectives. For instance, in Canada the oil reserves are difficult to correctly measure because of technological difficulties leading to high cost involvement. On the other hand, oil reserves in Alberta which are now considered second largest oil reservoir were considered as non-economical to develop in past decades (Inkpen, 2012, p.2). One of the most important aspects of oil industry is that rich and poor nations alike are consumers of oil. However, since oil is location-specific therefore only a specific number of nations are major oil producers of the world. Over the last decades, the developed nations have become leading importers of oil which has resulted in severe geographical and political issues. Oil industry is one sector which has experienced large scale government interventions and regulations ranging from taxation to cont rol over production. OPEC â€Å"represents government intervention on a global scale† (Inkpen, 2012, p.4). For five years Saudi Arabia which is OPEC’s largest producer country controlled price by reducing production during phases of excessive supply and increased production during phases of low supply. It could afford because of low population and excessive production. Thus Saudi Arabia along with other OPEC members strived to maximize their oil revenues in the short run (Spero & Hart, 2009, pp.346-347). OPEC’s goal is to sustain the bargaining power on oil producing countries by controlling price. The idea is to ensure smooth distribution of oil to consumers, producers getting their regular profits and investors earning fair returns. However, OPEC’s capacity to fulfill its mission is controversial since increasing oil prices in the 1980s resulted in storing up of oil by producing countries and new exploration

Personal Experience: A Caring Occurrence

Personal Experience: A Caring Occurrence The purpose of this reflective paper is to reflect on a personal experience in which you cared for someone. Using Johns model (Johns 2006), the reflection will explore how the personal experience reflected a caring occurrence. Reflection is the appearance of experiential knowledge and as nursing students; we should begin to use reflection as our experience in the nursing field accumulates. It is both justified and recommended that Carpers work be incorporated into reflective practice since it was a key figure in widening knowledge in nursing (Heath, 1998). Reflective practice incorporates Carpers (1978) ways of knowing personal, ethical, aesthetical and empirical knowing into an individuals reflection. Reflection is a personal understanding of self and in the development of self, reflecting on relationships and interactions between two or more people. As a nurse, the relationship is between the nurse and the client, and sometimes involves the clients family as well. The experience in which I cared for someone occurred in the fall of 2009. As part of my Gr. 12 Ethics and Morals Religion Class, it was required that for an eight week period, we spent a period of our time, once a week at a retirement home with our assigned adoptive grandparent. The purpose of this assignment was to spend time with an older adult, engage in communication, participation, and enjoy the time spent with the older generation and learn from them. So once a week, I made my way to the retirement home and spent an hour and a half with my adoptive grandparent Blanche. I planned ahead of time activities that she might like to take part in such as a puzzle, a walk, a craft, or baking. Once I got there, I would ask her what she would like to do and we would go from there. Each time I went there, she had a different story to tell me; her life as a young farm girl, her teenage years, and the love of her life, her career as a teacher, her family and journeys she had been on. Each st ory had its own personal meaning to her and I sat there attentively and listened, asked probing questions and comments. As her adopted grandchild, it was my duty to entertain her, keep her spirits up and encourage her. The one week when I went there, she had physiotherapy so I could not spend much time with her on a personal level, but more of a team of caring individuals to support her, and encourage her through her therapy. Although this situation does not exactly relate to a medical need for caring for someone, I still managed to care for an individual on a personal, face-to-face encounter. This experience also helped me to learn how important the elderly patients are. When I experienced this caring situation, I was feeling worried and nervous at first. I was unsure what to expect prior to meeting my adoptive grandparent. I was worried about the fact that my grandparent might not have liked me, or would be extremely quiet and held back. Since this was one of the first times I would be put in an experience like this, I just did not know what to expect. After the first two weeks, I became more comfortable in my surroundings and each week I would then look forward to my visits with Blanche. After I became comfortable, I was happy and opened up more towards Blanche. The purpose of this experience achieved a new found friendship with a member of the older generation. It gave me the opportunity to care for an individual at the retirement home who did not have many visitors, so I became her weekly visitor and spent quality time with her and card for her in a special way. This experience helped me achieve a better respect for the elderly and enhanced my ab ility to relate to them on a personal level. Knowledge that may have informed me would be the calling for a special person who cares for the spirituality of others. Nursing is a caring profession that is honoured as the spiritual, spirit-filled practice (Vance, 2003). A caring occasion becomes transpersonal when nurse and client together with their unique life histories and perception become a focal point, in which the moment is greater than the occasion itself (Watson, 2008). The experience shared between the two becomes a deeper pattern in life. The caring moment is being in the moment. Fully present, open to other people, compassion and connection. Reflection of practice allows the nurse to observe decisions made and bring to the open the knowledge that has formed from practicing skills. Nursing students can enhance multiple ways of knowing and their understanding of caring through the process of reflecting on caring encounters (Schaefer, 2002). The foundation of nurse care is the wisdom in knowing and understanding that les sons are learned by one another to become more human in learning the identity of ourselves with others. When I cared for Blanche on a weekly basis, I acted for the best with the values that I had at the time. Although I had not dealt with many elderly patients prior to this experience, I still knew the values I had and gave Blanche my utmost respect. I treated her with the same respect that I would have liked to be treated if the positions were opposite. Caring as a nurse means the innermost of nursing, without prejudice and aims at prioritizing the patients suffering and needs (Gustafsson et al., 2007). Nursing care is the process aimed at responding to patients needs without reasoning. Quality care is the element to caring. When a nurse is caring for someone, it is best that they are not bias towards the patient, nurses should treat all patients equally, meaning not giving certain patients more attention, unless their critical situation demands it of them. This situation connects with a previous experience in which I worked at a retirement home for a few weeks in the summer. This position mainly had me as house cleaning but in the evening when everything was done, it allowed me to interact with the residents. I talked to them, played games and took them for a stroll outside. The experience in which I cared for Blanche was more connected and personal in terms of the one-on-one time I was able to spend with her. The idea of reflection is caring science learning, learning and developing a personal knowledge of caring as an art (Gustafsson et al., 2007). This helps to establish the substance and quality of caring in regards to the patient. Factors that constrain my responding in new ways is my personal confidence level, with a variation of the knowledge of my experience, which I will hope to gain from working side-by-side with experience nurse practitioners. This also relates to my level of involvement, if I increase the questions I ask if I am in doubt, I will gain more knowledge of the situation. This will also offer clarification and a deeper level of thought in regards to the situation. When I was caring for Blanche, at first I was not very confident and a little hesitant to introducing myself to a complete stranger and spending time with her once a week. After participating in this learning of a life lesson, I gained so much from it. I have more confidence in my ability to communicate with strangers; I have stepped outside the box I built up around myself and have become a more confident, strong, communicative leader. Although I may still be a little hesitant about situations, that is normal. A fear of the unknown or hesitation is another constraint to responding in new ways. This unknowing is an awareness that as a nurse does not and cannot know or understand the client when they first meet (Heath, 1998). Knowing the clients information or background prior to meeting with the patient will help make the situation a little more comfortable. Mixed groups may possibly enhance the development of skills of reflection (Heath, 1998). Working together as a team will help form and ensure actions are for the best. As a team, all sides are valued and reflection is more in-depth and has different vantage points. As a student nurse, insights that I have gained from this reflection is that my experience will grow and I can begin to understand the details of what experienced nurses know. It may only be a small portion, but I can build an understanding for the knowledge expert nurses have and benefit from it. A powerful insight is recognizing the unknown, and as a nurse, I can learn to remain alert to the clients individual viewpoint of the situation. This can best be done by listening to the client and establishing a truthful, open, working relationship, without the state of unknowing. Nurses need to be aware of the lack of empirical knowledge (Heath, 1998). This will promote an awareness to learn, research and increase practical skills. Guided reflection is a journey of self-inquiry and transformation (Johns, 2006). Reflection helps one realize their ability to care, learn and gain experience on past situations, learn from mistakes so they do not happen again. Reflection is awakening of the se lf (Johns, 2006). Did I act or be the best I could be with Blanche? I personally feel that I did the best job I could with the knowledge I had at the time. After learning about nurse- client therapeutic communication, I feel that maybe now, if I were to go back and relive the experience, I would be have a better relationship with her and gain more knowledge and become an even better adopted grandchild. I would ensure that the relationship would be more purposeful and contain a position of trust and a unique responsibility to maintain a therapeutic relationship. What would I have done differently if I was able to relive this experience to improve and make the most of this experience for both myself and Blanche? If I were to relive this experience, I would change the direction of advancing the best outcome and interest for Blanche. I would give her more attention, make more time in my schedule to spend time with her and take pleasure in the time spent together. Just because I may understand something, d oes not mean that I could change the outcome, it just means I am on my way to changing and becoming a more determined nurse. Understanding something is the first step towards changing. As John (2006) states, usually negative feelings such as anger, guilt, frustration and sadness draw our attention to the experience. These negative feelings draw specific attention because they seem disturbed and usual taken-for-granted awareness for feelings. In my situation while I was caring for my adopted grandparent, this was not the case. If anything, it was the opposite. The feelings that drew my attention to this caring situation were happiness, thoughtfulness, joy, and understanding. The smile I saw every time I walked into Blanches room and glow in her eyes every time she saw us. Our weekly visits to her brightened her days and made her feel young again. I appreciated being with her, giving her my time, my attention and my skill as a person of todays generation. It takes practice first and then reflection (Johns, 2006). It is best to practice the skills needed first, make sure they are understood and demonstrated them properly and then reflect on the occasion and what went right and what went wrong and improve the situation for the next time.

A Critical Interpretation of Hans Kung?s Historical Analysis of the Dev

A Critical Interpretation of Hans Kung’s Historical Analysis of the Development of the Hierarchical Church   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The beginnings of the Christian church are shrouded in mystery. With the lack of evidence about that time in history, it is hard to draw conclusions of any type. However, the historical analyst, Hans Kung, has written a book to shed some light on the subject. In this book, Kung discusses his opinion on the development of the early church, and its hierarchical structure. In the following paper, I will address two of the chapters of Kung’s book, â€Å"The Beginnings of the Early Church† and â€Å"The Early Catholic Church†. The points that I will focus on are: The makeup and persecution of the early church community and why it was that way, and how, according to Kung, the founders of Catholicism went against how Jesus wanted the church to be governed by establishing a hierarchy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Christian church, according to Kung, began at Pentecost. When the Holy Spirit came to the apostles and told them to go out and preach the teachings of Jesus it meant that the apostles could claim an identity separate from Judaism. The majority of the first Christians were Jews from Jerusalem that believed that Jesus was the Messiah promised to the Jews in the Hebrew Testament and they believed in the resurrection. â€Å"The earliest Christian community did not want in any way to part company with the Jewish community or nation, but to remain integrated into Judaism.†(P. 13). The differences in the beliefs of the Jews and the Jewish-Christians naturally created a separation in the two groups. When the Christian disciples started going out and preaching their faith to people, the Roman Empire saw them as a threat to their power and decided that Christianity would have to be stopped. Because Christianity and Judaism were one, the two most effective ways to persecute the Christians was to execute their leaders, and to destroy the Jewish places of worship. After the Romans burned the Temple of Jerusalem for the second time, a council of Pharisees decided that the Christians were to be excommunicated from the Jewish temple.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  If not for the early connection to the Jewish faith, the Christian religion would never have established as a major religion. The idea of having one God, called monotheism, was too radi... ... what they thought, there would be no extravagance in the lives of the church officials. Likewise, if the church truly believed in what Jesus taught, they would not be shunning the participation of women in the church; rather, they would be embracing all the people that truly wished to participate in the vocation of a priest or any position in the church for that matter.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In conclusion, the early Christian church had its problems in who was accepted into the new faith and why they were persecuted for it. This was because, during the height of the Roman Empire, any group of people that could be dangerous to Roman ideology would not be tolerated, and the Romans would attempt to put a stop to it. These persecutions of the Christians, however, strengthened, not weakened the Christian church to a point that there would be no way to disperse the community of believers. The main reason that the church stayed together like it did was because of the early establishment of a hierarchy, which, while Kung speculates, would not be the way that Jesus would have wanted the church to be governed, worked in establishing the Christian community into a world religion.

Humanities of Hamlet Essay

The humanities, like most academic disciplines, face questions of popular and public perception. The sciences, for instance, increasingly attract challenges, sometimes of dubious validity, from passionate advocates of so-called ‘deep ecology’ outside the academy, and from postmodern science studies within it. Educationists worldwide face growing discontent with the quality and character of public education. Anthropologists fend off endemic charges of political incorrectness while struggling with the possible demise of their discipline. The fine arts have become inured to occasional ugly public confrontations and persistent bland dismissal by majority opinion. The humanities, it seems, are not alone in feeling the need to clarify their relations with the public. Some of the needed elucidation is trivial, but deserving of wide public dissemination, debate and consideration: for instance, the vocational contribution of the humanities is often misunderstood. Other matters are more fundamental. They have to do with understanding the value of the humanities in relation to the cultural formation of human beings. In South Africa the humanities stand in particular need of winning broader public acceptance and support because they are repositioning themselves in what is in significant respects a new country. Internal scrutiny and revision need to be accompanied by renewal of public understanding, both with regard to potential recruits to the disciplines (students and their parents, for instance) and in terms of the value placed on the humanities by employers and decision-makers in society. Vocationalism Let us begin with the trivial. It is often said that the university is the natural home of those who seek answers to the big questions. Well, here are some big questions: The science graduate asks, ‘Why does it work? ’ The graduate in accounting asks, ‘How much will it cost? ’ The management graduate asks, ‘When can you have it ready? ’ The humanities graduate asks, ‘And will it be French fries or a jacket potato? ’ The apocryphal charge here is that the humanities are all very well, but they don’t put supper on the table. They don’t lead to satisfying and lucrative careers. This is a very common public perception, especially in South Africa where the newly enfranchised middle classes are keen to  consolidate their financial position, while those who anticipate the pressure of redress and affirmative action policies want blue-chip international career qualifications to protect them from policy-weighted competition. How valid is the perception? Confronting the issue in their own particular context, the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada set out to demonstrate to society at large, and those who carry weight in the central economy in particular, that the humanities are in fact a good social investment. The Council commissioned a well-respected economist from the University of British Columbia, Robert Allen, to study the impact of investment in the Social Sciences and Humanities on the country’s economic viability in the global arena. He produced two reports (Allen 1998, 1999), and some of his key findings were as follows: Graduates in humanities and social sciences readily find jobs and generally earn high incomes (according to data obtained from Statistics Canada) The unemployment rate among university graduates in humanities and social sciences aged 25-29 is significantly lower (5.8%) than the unemployment rate among graduates of technical, vocational or career programs (findings based on 1991 census data) Most graduates in humanities and social sciences are employed in a professional or managerial capacity (50-80%). That is compared to 60% of counterparts with university degrees in commerce and 23-35% of individuals with technical or vocational diplomas Cost-benefit analysis shows the rate of return to society as follows: Education (10%) Social sciences (9%) Engineering (7. 9%) Humanities (7. 8%) Maths and the physical sciences (7.4%) All university programs analysed in the report in terms of their costs and benefits yield a social rate of return that exceeds the real interest rate in Canada today. These economic analyses were accompanied by other measures. For instance, in support of the findings, a meeting of 15 chancellors of universities in the province of Ontario issued a statement on the value of the Liberal Arts: The liberal arts and sciences must continue to be a seminal part of Ontario’s higher education. This is a practical idea as well as a philosophical one. A number of recent studies have clearly underlined that a well-rounded, general education – learning to think, to write and to express one’s ideas clearly – is as valuable to future employability as technical or technological training. (http://www. trainyourbrain. ca/english/supporters/chancellors. html) Perhaps carrying more weight in relevant quarters than the views of the chancellors (which might, of course, be interpreted by sceptics as merely selfserving conservatism), was an associated statement put out by 30 CEO’s of leading Canadian Hi-tech companies in which they affirmed, ‘We stand with the chancellors of Ontario’s universities. Their document urges: Yes, this country needs more technology graduates, as they fuel the digital economy. But it is impossible to operate an effective corporation in our new economy by employing technology graduates alone. We have an equally strong need for those with a broader background who can work in tandem with technical specialists, helping create and manage the corporate environment. A liberal arts and science education nurtures skills and talents increasingly valued by modern corporations. Our companies function in a state of constant flux. To prosper we need creative thinkers at all levels of the enterprise who are comfortable dealing with decisions in the bigger context. They must be able to communicate – to reason, create, write and peak – for shared purposes: For hiring, training, managing, marketing, and policy-making. In short, they provide leadership. (http://www. trainyourbrain. ca/english/tools/ceo. html) Clearly, these CEOs are no apologists for irrelevancy, ‘fuddyduddy-ism’ or aristocratic, leisure-class values. They are arguing in the best interests of their companies, as part of a concerted campaign to counter popular misperceptions concerning the value of the humanities to the Canadian economy. What about South Africa? This is no doubt heartening for advocates of the humanities; but that was Canada, this is South Africa. In the years immediately following our transition to democracy, Canada was ranked first in the United Nations’ Global Human Development Ratings: South Africa stood at ninety-third (Africa Institute 1996: 24). 1 Might there be grounds for comparison? Would similar findings emerge here? The late Jacob Bronowski, well-known for his contributions to the public understanding of science, put forward with admirable lucidity his view that the kind of society humanity seeks to create is identical with one which enables the work of science (and the arts) to proceed. He writes: As a set of discoveries and devices, science has mastered nature; but it has been able to do so only because its values, which derive from its method, have formed those who practise it into a living, stable and incorruptible society. Here is a community where everyone has been free to enter, to speak his mind, to be heard and contradicted – – The society of scientists is simple because it has a directing purpose: to explore the truth. Nevertheless, it has to solve the problem of every society, which is to find a compromise between man and men. It must encourage the single scientist to be independent, and the body of scientists to be tolerant. From these basic conditions, which form the prime values, there follows step by step a range of values: dissent, freedom of thought and speech, justice, honour, human dignity and self-respect. Our values since the Renaissance have evolved by just such steps. (74-75) Let us accept, for the sake of argument, Bronowski’s idealistic description of science and the community of scientists, and fully acknowledge the tremendous achievements of science, associated with the pursuit of these values. For all its omissions and exclusions, the kind of society portrayed by Bronowski is attractive both to those who adhere to creative exploration as a primary human motivation (mainly the well-to-do), as well as those for whom the increasingly widespread satisfaction of basic human needs is of primary importance. Yet can it plausibly be argued that the stable, ordered society science needs to make its optimal impact will result primarily from a concentration on science or, more mundanely, on maths, science and technology in general public education? Science (as opposed to scientists) has very little to say about how human life should be lived, even by implication. Secondly, the serious pursuit of scientific knowledge has always been a minority undertaking, and the delicious puritanism celebrated by Bronowski is undermined at every point by human nature. Truth-seeking is compromised by self-aggrandisement, lack of initiative, cultural dissonances, wayward appetites, untoward psychological complexities, sloth, factionalism, poverty, dogmatism and stupidity – all the regrettable variations that complicate (and embellish) human experience. Material progress alleviates some of these features and aggravates others, but in all societies, the true scientific proclivity is a minority interest, even among those equipped merely to make use of scientific findings, and who rely on them in their daily work and other interests. Bronowski has, in important respects, got it wrong. Science depends for its very survival upon the creation of a society which respects the values of science and permits them to thrive, and that can only be a society in which the values of the humanities have taken root, are constantly reviewed and renewed, and are shared by the overwhelming majority of the citizenry. It could plausibly be argued that this country needs the humanities even more than a society like Canada. Consider, as one example, the AIDS crisis in South Africa: the belated response to the situation, the culpable delays, the fatuous controversy over antiretrovirals and their provision to sufferers. Is this crisis the result of scientific failure? No, the science is there. The crisis has been the result of poor leadership, political obfuscation, power-plays, cultural regression, lack of social integration and poor, under-trained governmental bureaucracy. Similarly in the local government environment: it is not paucity of maths and science education that challenges programme delivery; it is the poverty of middle-order leadership, the inability to delegate effectively, the lack of initiative and capacity in ordinary civil and bureaucratic functions. The planning is often in place, but the general level of education and its social orientation is inadequate to make effective use of it. In addressing such shortcomings a key misapprehension is the assumption that because the country is desperately short of scientists and technologists, maths and science must be an absolute priority in our schooling system. This is to mistake the part for the whole. The fact is that many children – not only South African children – because of innate disposition, home background or poor education, are light-years from the possibility of attaining a marketable competence in maths or science2, yet they may be highly intelligent and suited to a great many useful, even exalted, functions in government and the economy. Given good teaching, they can learn to think well and searchingly about deep issues that plague contemporary society. It does not take profound mathematical understanding to read a balance sheet, or even to lead a large corporation. Statistical projections, financial control and scenario-planning are service functions, not necessarily leadership tasks. Yet the myth is steadily propagated that mathematical intelligence, more so even than scientific literacy, is what South Africa needs. This is a harmful distortion. Of course we need mathematicians and scientists, as many as we can produce, but unaided they will not be able to deliver the kind of society in which we all want to live. There are no scientific solutions to the problems of underdevelopment and civic education, only important ancillary contributions. Science functions optimally in a democratic, relatively stable and wealthy society. On its own, science is powerless to create such conditions. These conditions are attained and sustained, not through science, but in societies that are absorbing at depth the lessons of the humanities. People want to believe that because science and technology are integral to modern developing economies, such economies will develop if only sufficient emphasis is placed on maths and science in the education system. In fact, the sequence has to be reversed. The conditions of stable governance, effective bureaucracy, adequate infrastructural maintenance, basic skills development, and responsible social services are pre-conditions for the adequate functioning of a scientific and technological culture. Well-educated scientists obviously acquire and exercise their civic imaginations in support of such conditions, but it is more than likely that the products of an education system that marginalizes or travesties the humanities will fail both science and society. The upshot of this realization, if decision-makers could be persuaded to look it in the face, implies, not a down-grading of the emphasis on science and technology, but a much closer and more concerned look at what teachers in schools and universities are doing with the humanities. Successful socio-economic and cultural development requires a conscious balance between the sciences and humanities, and it is far from certain that humanities education in South Africa is sufficiently strong and healthy to carry its share of the burden. Here we come to the second challenge. Do humanities practitioners in South Africa have adequate answers to the questions society is implicitly (and sometimes explicitly) putting to us? Can scholars in the humanities explain their contribution to the public good? Vocationalism in the university Let us start by considering the humanities in the universities. This after all is where much of the understanding that gradually works its way through the schools and into society originates. One of the first things advocates of the humanities would need to make clear to interrogators is the character of a university education as distinct from a purely vocational one. It is not the existence or otherwise of a more or less direct linkage to specific career opportunities that determines whether or not such an education can be described as vocational, but the character of the education undergone. The distinction may be characterized as follows. A vocational education transmits a particular range of knowledge, ideally in its current, up-to-date state, in a mode designed to relate it most nearly to a context of application in society. So, accounting studies emphasize principles and best practice in relation to the legal and policy framework pertaining today, and the present state of the South African business and corporate environment. It is of course possible to teach accounting at different levels of complexity, finesse and specialization, but there is little incentive to move the subject away from its severely practical orientation. PhDs in accounting are rare. With management, the situation shifts slightly, in that a range of management theory will normally be explored, emanating from diverse situations, and whose applicability becomes very much a matter of contextual judgment. It is certainly possible to earn a PhD in management studies, but the subject matter is likely to edge towards issues that belong in the social sciences and humanities proper. The paradigmatic qualification in business studies is the MBA, a programme designed to develop cutting-edge managers and business leaders for different contexts, and among the entry requirements is typically a substantial period of practice. This stipulation is there to ensure adequate integration of theory and practice in the educational process. Law has the potential to move fully into the university paradigm, in that practical legal training can be (and, depending on the level of qualification, should be) supported by rigorous emersion in the history and philosophy of law. In fact, it would be difficult to conceive of adequate legal practice emerging from an academic culture divorced from the humanities. It should be apparent, then, that while many popular career options can be placed along a continuum running between the poles of the narrowly vocational and the so-called purely academic, it is always the degree of emphasis placed on the ‘other-than-vocational’ component that qualifies the programme for inclusion in the domain of true tertiary study. When we turn to the core disciplines comprising the humanities, the connection with a specific profession or career is weak or absent (unless transmission and extension of the discipline itself comes to be counted as such). True, there is often a loose affiliation between the humanities and vocations such as librarianship, teaching, advertising, writing and publishing, but the connection is not intrinsic or necessary. This fact in itself can be problematic, because students whose thinking is constrained by the vocational paradigm, whether through the influence of parents or other social  pressures, will tend to define the value of a humanities degree solely in terms of particular vocational outcomes. ‘Text’ versus ‘language’ If then, humanities undergraduates are not preparing directly for a vocational career, what are they doing? And why aren’t they preparing directly for a career? I want to answer, first, in terms similar to those proposed by Michael Oakeshott (1967: 308-312). The paradigmatic distinction is that between knowing a text and learning a language. A university discipline expresses a particular mode of enquiry, one ‘language’ in the array of languages that makes up the intellectual capital of humanity. Each particular language of enquiry is embodied in a vast array of performances in these languages – good, bad and indifferent – performances that we might call ‘texts’. Vocational education exhausts itself in knowing particular texts, and these texts are chosen because they are current and relevant in the world of practice and application. Learn the text, become expert in it, and you’ve attained the end of vocational education. Once you leave the educational institution – let’s hope it doesn’t call itself a university – you may lack experience (though, as has been indicated, many vocational programmes strive to incorporate work experience so as to minimise this gap), but you are, or should be, ready to perform the text or texts you have learned, this time in the workplace arena. Because of the rapidity of social change, your text, or range of texts, will soon become redundant, out-of-date, and then you must learn additional texts. You trained in servicing VWs, now you must learn Renaults. You learned to programme Fortran and Basic, now you must master C++ and XML. You studied Management by Objectives, now you must re-shape your style to fit transnational corporate policy. You will gain broader experience, you will always be learning, but what you will be learning is text after text after text – and thoroughly necessary and rewarding the experience may well prove to be. The point of higher education from the outset is to learn the language. In higher education, texts are studied not simply for their own sake, but for what we can learn from this study about the mode of enquiry of which they are a good example. In other words, texts are treated as emblematic of some aspects of the language, and we choose the particular texts we study as part of a higher education because they are in a proper state to yield insight into the language they exemplify (Oakeshott: 314). Our object of study is not only the text but the language, and, usually at graduate level, we go on to reach towards a language of languages, which we might call philosophy. The ‘swerve’ from higher education The distinction between ‘text’ and ‘language’ on which I am harping, is rather mysterious and fascinating. Consider this. In order to appreciate, say, Hamlet, I must know the language. In order to know the language, I must read Hamlet. The apparent circularity is embarrassing, and the sort of thing that tends to compromise the humanities in the eyes of the uninitiated. M. A. K. Halliday explores the distinction between text and language – and it is fundamental to the mission of the humanities in general no less than Halliday’s particular discipline of linguistics – by means of an illuminating analogy: – – – the analogy whereby language is to text as climate is to weather is useful to think with. It reminds us that these are not two different things, or rather what we call ‘climate’ and what we call ‘weather’ are the same phenomenon seen from different angles, or different moments of time, and so it is with language and text – – – much misunderstanding has been caused by counterposing these two terms, with language and text being treated as if they were different orders of reality. He goes on to point out a significant limitation to the analogy: Like all analogies, it’s very partial. It’s an abstract tool for thinking with, not a strict proportion, because semiotic systems are not like physical systems. In particular, an instance of a semiotic system carries value; instances of physical systems do not. Of course you may prefer one kind of weather to another, but that’s got no relevance whatever to the status of an instance of that weather in relation to climate: it’s just something to be observed and measured like any element. But a text has its own value, not necessarily, in fact, probably not usually, fixed and determinate – – – And the relation of the discourse value to the underlying system is in fact highly complex. I refer to this as the ‘Hamlet factor’. (Halliday 2001, transcr. Kilpert) A good teacher of the humanities must know the language the text under discussion instantiates, and must be able to move the student from reading ‘text’ to exploring ‘language’, to reveal the distinctiveness of text in relation to the homologies and contrasts available in the language. Some texts disturb, redefine, modify the language in which they are formed. They have a perennially evolving afterlife. In the broad historical perspective of cultural ‘climate’ they remain instances of ‘weather’ that are of intrinsic and perennial interest. This is what Halliday means by the ‘Hamlet factor’. Indeed, not altogether coincidentally, to the best of my knowledge, Hamlet is the only literary work to have a fully-fledged academic journal devoted to its study. 3 Ignorance of the distinction between text and language, and all that it implies, is symptomatic of the kind of confusion that influences well-intentioned but ignorant tertiary institutions to swerve from true higher education towards reductive vocationalism disguised as higher education. What can philosophy do that society values? Aha! – ‘critical thinking’. Right, let’s forget about philosophy and teach critical thinking. What useful outcome can we expect from the literature student? Aha! – ‘communication skills’. Right, let’s forget literature and teach communication skills. And so the reduction goes on, relentlessly impoverishing the tertiary environment, the individual student and society, in the name of relevance, vocationalism, contextualised learning, public accountability (in the shallowest of senses) and all the other misnomers that disguise a lack of educational understanding. Why we still need the humanities today Each of us is born into a relatively narrow life-world. This is as true for those fortunate few who enter upon the human scene embraced by sheltered luxury as it is for the many who expend their years in poverty, far from the seats of wealth, power or influence. Moreover, the character of the world as it impinges on the individual is changing rapidly, everywhere. (This statement is probably valid even for those who strive most to avoid the world, such as those who spend their time in religious retreat. ) What this suggests is that ordinary means of social transmission, where values, attitudes and judgments are passed from generation to generation within the family, or from mentor to ‘apprentice’ in society, are no longer adequate or may prove so only in the most exceptional of cases. These processes may still be necessary, indeed fundamental, to individual human development, but they cannot be sufficient. Rapid technological change and the shifts in values that result, increasing mobility, population growth, the communications and information revolutions, the differential impact of social change on pre-established world views – in fact all the cliches of the globalizing world – add up to an uncertain field of potential experience for the individual. The resources of the family, even in optimal or exceptional circumstances, are insufficient to interpret, let alone adequately to evaluate, this complexity, especially since it is increasingly likely that the individual’s activities and proclivities will shift to arenas and predicaments beyond the experience of the senior generations. This is where the educational potential of the humanities becomes such a powerful resource. By exposing students to detailed study of particular artifacts – works of literature, examples of fine art, philosophical systems, political  prescriptions, musical compositions, social theories – we avail them of the opportunity to form and test their own judgments, to challenge received opinion, to argue positions within a community of informed discussion and debate, to think and re-think their views in the company of major artists and diagnosticians, each of whom has put their work forward for exactly this purpose, namely, to help shape and re-shape human beings. The power of critical thought, trained and developed in this manner, is central to the formation of a creative democratic citizenry anticipated, for example, in South Africa’s White Paper of 1997. 4 As a society, we need the formal space of the humanities in which to engage with a full range of estimates concerning human potential, past and future. In the course of such studies students will also, no doubt, learn to think clearly and write well, but this is incidental. The mission of the humanities is to mould human identity and purpose in relation to changing times and circumstances. No other field of enquiry, not science, not sociology, not established religion, can meet this imperative need quite as well. Some will claim never to have felt such a need, or to have abandoned it for ‘the real world’ after fleeting initiation at school or university. For these, the humanities are so much frippery, a merely decorative intellectual surplus, or shallow entertainment which ignores the imperatives of the way the economic world works. Such people intend to stick to the ‘text’ they inherit, and perform it unthinkingly to their own best advantage. The abject misery of thousands, though it seems melodramatic to say so, comes to rest on the shoulders of those who have reached this conclusion. The founding impulse of the humanities To counter such views from a fons et origo, we might go back to a period before the Romans, before Plato even, to the founding moment of the humanities. It is commonplace to acknowledge, as do scientists and everyone other than proponents of ethno-science, that science arose once only on planet earth, among the ancient Greeks (Wolpert 25). 5 It is less commonly acknowledged that the western humanities, too, rose at a particular moment among the Greeks, though in all probability similar moments passed unrecorded in other cultures. The originary impulse is expressed (or invented) during Socrates’ famous discourse in the Apology, as recorded and fictionalized by Plato: If I tell you that this is the greatest good for a human being, to engage every day in arguments about virtue and the other things you have heard me talk about, examining both myself and others, and if I tell you that the unexamined life is not worth living for a human being, you will be even less likely to believe what I am saying. But that’s the way it is, gentlemen, as I claim, though it’s not easy to convince you of it. (Apology 38a, trans.Nussbaum 1) ‘The unexamined life is not worth living for a human being’ (emphasis mine): ‘that’s the way it is. ’ This is the bald standpoint of the humanities expressed in a nutshell, and it is not the easiest position to justify to defenders of the status quo, either inside or outside the academy. Let’s look at some of the issues. Why was Socrates on trial for his life? He was teaching that the young ought to devote time and intelligence to finding satisfactory arguments to justify their beliefs, rather than simply following those of their parents and the civic authorities. Not even the gods were to be exempt from rational enquiry. Aristophanes, in his comedy The Clouds, viewed Socrates as dangerously subversive of orthodox education, which he took to be a process whereby the young are indoctrinated in the traditions and values of their culture, as is the case in traditional societies everywhere. In other words, for Aristophanes education meant learning the text of your society. Not so with Socrates. He wanted people to study the language of humanity, though he recognized that this was no easy matter. We are back to the relation between ‘text’ and ‘language’? Socrates held that by systematically questioning text, probing it from all possible perspectives, exploring alternatives, we may by degrees arrive at the language, or at least important elements of it. It is important to stress, ‘from all possible perspectives,’ because Socrates was also an early advocate of truly democratic learning. He was willing to engage in philosophical discussion with anyone and everyone, in the hope that they might know more than he did, or contribute something uniquely valuable. Plato, by contrast, wanted to restrict radical questioning to an elite who, through philosophical investigation, would gain access to timeless truths, enabling its members to rule justly over the masses. Here we have the origin of the tension between the humanities as a source of elite leadership – the Platonism of government and corporate management – and the humanities as a democratic investigation of human meaning and value. 6 Socrates was utterly serious in his claim for intensive rational enquiry as essential to discovering a true mode of living, the good life. The unexamined life is fit only for something less than a human being. Those who unthinkingly follow tradition, who defend and reproduce text uncritically, are trapped in what Wittgenstein might call a ‘form of life’ (241). Plato likened it to living imprisoned in a cave, pursuing a troglodyte existence ruled by convention and fear of the unknown (Republic Book 7). It is interesting to speculate that the tame Platonic ‘puppet show’ may have primitive origins in the image of early humans huddled in solidarity round a fire, the cave walls patterned by flickering shadows, their shapes shifting and unaccountable, while outside lie unknowable dangers, not to be faced in the dark, and largely indecipherable within the cave despite the artificial fire-light. It is a potent representation of fear. Those venturing forth on the intellectual scramble to seek the source of the shadows (to find truth) must be prepared to risk themselves on two counts: first in view of what they might find outside, and second on account of what their fellow humans might do to hold them to the text that currently governs behavior in the cave. Those leaving the enchanted circle may not return. Those remaining have to learn to tolerate the courageous quest of those who ‘go beyond,’ and to deal with the emotional disturbance and communal risk involved. We know what happened to Socrates. We worry that today’s South African society, focused wholly on instrumental programmes directed to immediate ends, will not have the courage, vision or knowledge to support the quest.

Age Affects Drug Metamorphosis Essays

Age Affects Drug Metamorphosis Essays Age Affects Drug Metamorphosis Essay Age Affects Drug Metamorphosis Essay Introduction There has been a batch of work and research carried out since the find that age affects drug metamorphosis which can take to toxicity in the 1950s and 1960s. Therefore more cognition and understanding about how drug metamorphosis affects age is critical, which led to the happening out of the of import function of the liver, cytochrome enzyme household, genetic sciences and transporter systems in drug metamorphosis. Age was discovered to hold singular consequence on most of this phenomena involved in drug metamorphosis such as liver volume decrease, lessening in activity of some cytochrome enzymes household. However, the job of acquiring healthy liver tissue of homo and some limitation ethically have limited the surveies of drug metamorphosis effects on age in relation to toxicity. There are legion factor that besides influence the toxicokinetics of drugs in homo. Adult population have more advantage in footings of surveies affecting drugs metamorphosis than the older population and p ediatric population due to hazards involved and ethical grounds in surveies on new drugs which discourage testing of drugs in the older and pediatric population. Changes in drug metamorphosis may be due to differences in toxicokinetics which include soaking up, distribution, metamorphosis or elimination. There are legion variety meats and system that diminution with age and besides undeveloped variety meats and systems in babies or pediatricss affects drug metamorphosis has consequence of this conditions. Advancing age consequences in cut down stomachic acid secernment, stomachic voidance, GI mobility, surface country for soaking up, liver size and map, nephritic map, thin organic structure mass, entire H2O content, serum albumen, cardiac end product and increase organic structure fat which affect straight or indirectly drug metamorphosis and can take to toxicity. Drug METABOLISMS Metamorphosis is a procedure that cause drugs to go more H2O soluble in order to readily take them from the organic structure after they have perform their action in the organic structure. This procedure takes topographic point chiefly in the liver cells and produces metabolites which are non active and sometimes non-toxic, although some metabolites may be toxic. There are drugs that their parent drug are in active and the metabolites produced are active. The mechanisms of drug metamorphosiss are divided into stage I and phase II. Phase I reactions involves structural alteration of drug molecules and stage II reaction dwelling of junction with a more H2O soluble compound. Oxidation, decrease and hydrolysis are chief reaction happening in stage I with engagement of cytochrome p450 enzymes an other enzymes are besides involved in oxidative metamorphosis ( Strolin Benedetti, M. et Al ) . Maturational alterations occurs from birth in both stage I and phase II metabolic tracts which is no rmally non to the full mature at birth. The liver is most of import organ for drug metamorphosis quantitatively and signifiers about 6 % of the organic structure mass at birth but around 3 % of the organic structure mass in the grownup. Growth is associated with decrease in blood fluxing into the liver and liver volume accordingly ensuing in reduced metabolic clearance with drugs that require high hepatic remotion whereas drugs with low hepatic remotion are normally less removed which can take to toxicity. Depending on the enzyme system involved, there can be production of low or high plasma concentration of active rule due to different capacities to metabolise drug in the paediatric or older people than in grownup. There are healing agent in kids that produces metabolites whereas this metabolites are non present usually in grownup and the metabolites may be the cause of efficaciousness and/or toxicity seen with disposal of drug in kids for illustration kids having Elixophyllin produces caffeine ( Olive et Al. ) and other illustrations of healing agent that differ in metabolite production are paracetamol, salicylamide, Chloromycetin, valproic acid and Tagamet. There is besides different in degree of look of metabolites in kids compared to adult although they express the same enzyme complement but there is no cognition of illustration of metabolite production non usually present in grownup that are seen in the older population. Few exclusions occurs though in most instances because differences between the kids and grownups are in ratio of metabolite compared to the parent drug instead than metabolites that are unevenly specific to the paediatric. PHASE IREACTIONS OXIDATIVE ENZYMES CYTOCHROME P450 ( CYP ) SYSTEM The oxidative metamorphosis of many drugs and chemicals are catalyze by cytochrome p450 isoenzyme superfamily that consist of over 50 proteins. The enzymes are present in the smooth endoplasmic Reticulum of the liver and other tissue in their lipotropic membrane which can be isolated and they become cysts called microsomes. Different cytochrome p450 household are responsible for different metamorphosis for illustration cytochrome p450 households 1-4 are responsible for foreign compounds metamorphosis while the other cytochrome p450 households are responsible for endogenous substrates metamorphosis. The metabolic activation of many chemical carcinogens and toxins that undergoes metamorphosis and used clinically are besides the duty of cytochrome p450. CYP1A There are two isoforms of CYP1A subfamily viz. CYP1A1 AND CPY1A2. CYP1A1 are chiefly extra-hepatic. CYP1A2 is concerned chiefly with the metamorphosis of paracetamol, caffeine, Elixophyllin, impramine hydrochloride, aromatic aminoalkanes, Coumadin and acetophenetidin. All demethylations of N-1, N-3, N-7 and pealing hydroxylation of C-8 in the metamorphosis of caffeine and Elixophyllin are besides the duty of CYP1A2 and other CYP isozymes like CYP3A4/5, CYP2A6 and CYP2E1 besides take portion in these reaction ( Oesterheld et al, Kalow, W. and Tang et al. ) . In pediatric, CYP1A2 is non normally noticeable until one to three months infant age and its additions until about three old ages but remains the same with big degree afterwards. Demethylation of caffeine N-3 depends on CYP1A2 in newborns, babies and grownups but N-3 demethylation is more of import in immature babies. Caffeine metabolic tract matures with postpartum age particularly with entire demethylation, demethylation of N-7 and N-3 demethylation whereas demethylation of N-1 show no fluctuation but ripening occurs at one and half old ages of age. Hydroxylation of C-8 is normally developed at one month in few babies than in grownups. The activity of most demethylation was found to be lower in newborns and babies than grownup and diet of babies besides affect development of CYP1A2 activity ( Blake, M.J. et Al ) . There is lessening in activity of CYP1A2 in aged with caffeine. Most of this fluctuation leads to toxicity and it s dose dependent excessively. CYP2A There are three isoforms of this subfamily viz. CYP2A6, 2A7 and 2A13 ( Hakkola, J. et Al ) . CYP2A6 is chiefly involved in contact action of coumarin 7-hydroxylation ( Pelkonen, O. et Al ) . Urinary elimination of 7-hydroxycoumarin is about the same in kids of six to fourteen old ages and grownups but the rate of riddance is unchanged or reduced for CYP2A substrates in the aged which can do toxicity in relation to dose given. CYP2A6 is non seen in fetal liver. CYP2C The isoforms of this subfamily are CYP2C9, CYP2C19 and CYP2C8. They are involved in metamorphosis of assorted curative agent for illustration anti-inflammatory drugs ( non-steroidal ) , antiepileptics, Coumadin, propranolol, Valium etc and might lend to metamorphosis of endogenous agents e.g arachidonic acid. CYP2C isozymes is noticeable early in neonatal period, one month degree is normally about tierce of grownups and remains the same until about one twelvemonth of age. From birth there is interindividual fluctuation in CYP2C9 protein and activity until about 18years with 36 crease boulder clay five months and less fluctuation between five months and 18 old ages. Phenytoin ( antiepileptic ) and substrate of CYP2C9 pharmacokinetics is affected which can take to toxicity. Expression of CYP2C19 additions from birth for approximately five month and fluctuation of single between five months and ten old ages is about 22 creases but from ten old ages at that place is similarity in activit y and look with grownup ( Blanco, J.G. et Al ) . In the aged there is lessening in the rate of riddance of substrates of both CYP2C19 and CYP2C9 ( Kinirons, M.T. et al and Cusack et Al. ) likely doing toxicity depending on dosage. CYP2D CYP2D6 is involved in the metamorphosis of drugs like A ; szlig ; -blockers, anti jerking drugs, antidepressants ( tricyclic and non-tricyclic ) , codeine, Capoten, ondansetron etc ( Strolin Benedetti, M. et Al ) . There is addition in the protein look of CYP2D6 from few hebdomads postpartum age to about five old ages and reaches about two- tierce of the grownup degree. There is besides CYP2D6 polymorphism in kids but there is unchanged rate of riddance of substrates of CYP2D6 in the aged. Most of this change with age can impact the metamorphosis taking to toxicity and it s dose dependant. CYP2E CYP2E1 contribute to the metamorphosis of little molecules like paracetamol, aminobenzine, ethyl alcohol, N-nitrosodimethylamine ( strolin Benedetti, M. et Al ) . The enzymes rises after birth boulder clay about one twelvemonth and go approximately 40 % of big degree but reaches 100 % grownup degree between one twelvemonth and 10 twelvemonth ( strolin Benedetti, M. et Al ) . It decrease or stay unchanged with age utilizing substrates like paracetamol and chloroxazone ( Kinirons et Al and OMahony et Al. ) but recent survey shows that there is addition in CYP2E1 activity with age in work forces than in adult females ensuing in toxicity depending on dosage. CYP3A CYP3A isoforms are CYP3A4, CYP3A5, CYP3A7 ; they are the major CYP isoforms found in the liver and little bowel. They are besides involved in oxidization of legion substrates.CYP3A5 is independent of age and variably high in look ( Steven et al. ) . CYP3A4 is majorly expressed in grownup liver while CYP3A7 is majorly expressed in fetal liver. The isoforms are closely related structurally but differs in monooxygenase reaction capacity map. CYP3A7 in fetal liver is really active until after first hebdomad of birth and starts to diminish till it is absent in grownup liver. CYP3A4 is really weak or non present in fetus but rises after birth and it is responsible for biotransformation of cisapride ( serotonin 5-HT4 agonist ) which can do cardiac toxicity in newborns due to steady addition in activity of CYP3A4 in metamorphosis of cisapride that exceeds grownups value activity particularly in newborns and grownup that do nt transport hazard factor impacting them. Another CYP3A4 substrate, endovenous Versed ( ataractic ) metamorphosis is lower in newborns than in babies greater than 3months of age but as a consequence of low activity of CYP3A4 in the bowel of grownup there is addition in bioavailability of Versed following unwritten consumption in preterm babies compared to grownups ( De Wildt, S.N. et Al ) . CYP3A4 development is fastened with diet in babies ( Blake, M.J. et Al ) . In the aged there is inconclusive information about the activity and look of CYP3A but it remain unchanged or lessening with age ( Schmucker et al. ) . FLAVIN-CONTAINING MONOOXYGENASES ( FMOs ) Flavin- containing monooxygenases are critical in oxidative of assorted foreign compounds incorporating nucleophilic N, phosphorus-heteroatoms, Se, S that are NADPH dependant. There are six member cistron household of the enzyme ( FMO 1-6 ) . In the paediatric, FMO1 look was highest from 2months to 4months gestation and a mechanism coupled with construct suppressed wholly look of FMO1 within three yearss post natal. FMO3 look was non present during neonatal period but low degree was present between 2months and 4months gestation ; from one to two old ages of age FMO3 look was present and increase boulder clay about 11 old ages but from 11 old ages to eighteen old ages, there is gender -interdependence in the addition of FMO3 look ( Strolin Benedetti, M. et Al ) . There is a hepatic nothing FMO phenotype in newborn due speedy station natal suppression of FMO1 and FMO3 look delayed oncoming. MONOAMINE OXIDASES ( MAOs ) Monoamine oxidases are involved in the exogenic and endogenous compounds metamorphosis and found in the chondriosome of liver, kidney, lungs, encephalon, bowel and thrombocytes ( Strolin Benedetti, M. et al. ) . Their concentration is low in liver and higher in other tissues. The two monoamine oxidases that take portion in drug metamorphosis are MAO A and MAO B. During construct MAO A activity is really high and reduces rapidly in the first two twelvemonth of age and becomes steady afterwards. MAO B activity is low at construct, steady in early age and increases with progressing age. ALCOHOL DEHYDROGENASE ( ADH ) Alcohol dehydrogenases are cytosolic isozymes that are involved in the reversible oxidization of intoxicants to aldehydes and metamorphosis of endogenous compounds like steroids and vitamin A1. For illustration Atarax to cetirizine. There are six categories of intoxicant dehydrogenase ADH 1-6, five of the ADH 1-5 are found in adult male ( Strolin Benedetti, M. et al. ) . In newborns, there is immature development of the activity of ADH but from one to two and half twelvemonth of age, the activity of ADH is the same or greater than in grownup. There is no much difference in the activity of ADH in grownup compared to the aged. MOLYBDENUM HYDROXYLASES ( ALDEHYDE OXIDASE AND XANTHINE OXIDASE ) Aldehyde oxidase ( AO ) and Xanthine oxidase ( XO ) are involved in exogenic and endogenous substrates biotransformation. XO is involved in oxidative hydroxylation of hypoxanthine to xanthine, xanthine to uric acid and purine metamorphosis last two stairss in mammals. AO and XO are similar structurally but AO takes portion in metamorphosis of estrogen antagonist, ziprasidone, zaleplon, famciclovir, zonisamide etc. XO activity in plasma is really high in babes compared to adult and AO activity is immature until about 12months after ( Karg, E. et Al and Tayama, Y. et Al ) . XO activity is independent of age in aged. REDUCTIVE ENZYMES NADPH-CYTOCHROME P450 REDUCTASE The negatron giving spouse to CYP enzymes are flavin adenine dinucleotide ( FAD ) and flavin mononucleotide ( FMN ) contained in the cytochrome p450 reductase. NADPH cut downing enzymes are passed to the FAD of cytochrome p450 reductase and so to CYP enzymes via the FMN of the cytochrome p450 reductase. There is no much important alteration with age with NADPH-cytochrome p450 reductase ( Schmucker et al. ) . ALDO-KETOREDUCTASES Aldo ketoreductases are present in red blood cells, liver and are cytosolic enzymes involved in decrease of carbonyl groups. They besides metabolized hypolipidemic drugs ( fenofibrate ) and anti malignant neoplastic disease drugs ( anthracyclines ) . Prostaglandin E1 ( PGE1 ) are metabolized by ketoreductase. ketogroup decrease frequently produce active metamorphosis which can do toxicity with age for illustration idarubicin produces idarubicinol ( alcohol merchandise ) and PGE1 produces 13,14-dihydro-15- ketoprostaglandin E1 which is farther cut down to active compound 13, 14-dihydro-prostaglandin E1. HYDROLYTIC ENZYMES ESTERASES There is lessening in the activity of esterases in newborn than in grownup but in the aged physical failing reduces the activity of esterases particularly those with injuries, undergoing surgery, injured or ill. From 7months gestation to 12months of age, there is speedy addition in the activity of plasma arylesterase and pseudocholinesterase activity, but no important change occurs afterwards. There is disconnected addition in erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase activity between construct and 12months i.e red blood cells are non matured before construct. Ester signifiers of drugs are largely incompletely hydrolyzed in newborns due to low serum concentration that consequence e.g Erythrocin estolate, Chloromycetin palmitate ( Morselli, P.L. et al. ) . PHASE II REACTIONS Acetylation Junction with acetyl group by drugs like INH, p-aminosalicylic, p-aminobenzoic acid, sulfamezathine and toxic agent is control by activity of N-acetyltransferase ( NAT ) . in premature and neonates, there is acetylation of p-aminobenzoic acid by N-acetyltransferase1 ( NAT1 ) which increase somewhat in babies and is reduced in kids ( Strolin Benedetti, M. et al. ) . N-acetyltransferase2 ( NAT2 ) involved in caffeine and INH metamorphosis shows that in babies there are slow acetylators or fast acetylators that are non matured with caffeine and with isoniazid acetylation ripening occurs after one twelvemonth, as fast acetylors increases with age till four old ages peak. METHYLATION Junction of methyl group are the duty of S-methytransferase, O-methyltransferase, and N-methyltransferase which are involved in transportation of methyl group to oxygen-nucleophile, nitrogen-nucleophile and sulfur nucleophile. N-methyltransferases Theophylline N-7-methylation in newborn to caffeine is good matured but oxidative demethylation is deficient and matures after several months of age. Thiopurine-s-methyltransferase Thiopurine-s-methyltransferase ( TPMT ) is involved in the metamorphosis of azathiopurine ( converted to 6-MP ) and catalyzes thiopurines metamorphosis e.g 6-MP ( antiblastic drug ) . TPMT is a cytosolic polymorphic enzyme which is cistron specific and are present in many tissue and red blood cell. In pediatric, there is high activity of TPMT in approximately 90 % of the population, approximately 8 % have intermediate activity and 0.3 % have low activity. Inactivation by TPMT which affects the efficaciousness of 6MP in single with low TPMT activity experience terrible toxicity with 6MP standard doses. GLUCURONIDATION There are assorted UDP glucoronsyltransferase ( UGT ) isozymes present in human. Glucuronidation in pediatric ranges adult degree when they are 12weeks to24weeks old, 12months, 36months or subsequently in age depending on the drug. At 12weeks of age, hematoidin glucuronidation which is the duty of UGT1A1 isozymes approach big degree but occurs at really low degrees in newborns liver. For illustration Chloromycetin with lower glucuronidation in paediatric can take to toxicity because glucuronidation is clearly deficient in most premature babes and mature babes. Therefore high concentration of unmetabolized Chloromycetin may increase in sum taking to serious toxicity which cause go arounding prostration or gray baby syndrome with standard dosage per bodyweight. These prompt the more surveies and the dosage was regulated on weight, gestation and postpartum age footing. UGT2B7 besides metabolize Chloromycetin and some UGT isoforms besides eliminates it. 3-glucuronides ( M3G ) and 6-glucu ronides ( M6G ) are formed as a consequence of UGT2B7 metabolising morphia. There is addition in the quality of morphine glucuronidation activity after neonate age. For illustration there is addition in epirubicin glucuronidation activity with age and riddance of epirubicin ( malignant disease intervention ) is majorly by UGT2B7 glucuronidation. In kids of 7 to 10 twelvemonth, there is deficient glucuronidation of paracetamol and salicylamide in correlativity with grownups ( Alam, S.M. et al. ) . UGT1A6 is the chief glucuronidation isozymes of paracetamol although UGT1A1 and UGT1A9 besides takes portion in the glucuronidation ( Court, M.H. et al. ) . Strassburg et Al. observed that UGT1A1, 1A3, 2B15, 2B4, 1A4, 2B7, 1A6, 2B10 and 1A9 are present after 6 months of age. There is different in look of UGT1A1, 1A6 and 2B6 protein but lower messenger RNA look for UGT2B4, 1A9 was seen. Hepatic glucuronidation activity in 1-2years is low compared to grownups for the undermentioned drugs e.g buprenorphine, Elavil, isobutylphenyl propionic acid, theelin, 4-tert-butylphenol. Acyl co-enzymes A, phospholipid content, fatty acid with long concatenation and membrane factors may be responsible for enzymatic activities differences between pediatric and grownup. In aged, there is decreased glucuronidation of lamotrigine and riddance of Serax, retigabine by UGT activity. SULFATION The sulfate junction of several endogenous and exogenic chemicals by sulfotransferase ( SULT ) cistron household that encodes about 11 major enzymes utilizing 3-phosphoadenosine-5-phosphosulfate ( PAPS ) . In peadiatric, there is ripening of sulfate tract at construct which is the chief metabolic path in baby and kids for salicylamide and paracetamol ( Alam, S.M. et al. ) . For illustration in morphine metamorphosis sulfate junction can counterbalance for the less-matured glucuronidation. Junction WITH AMINO ACIDS Biotransformation of some compounds is dependent on the junction of foreign compounds of carboxylic acids with endogenous amino acids. In worlds glycine, glutamine and taurine are aminic acids that undergoes junction often. In pediatric, junction with glycine additions from construct to kids age and is the major tract for metamorphosis of salicylates in newborns ( strolin Benedetti, M.et al. ) . Formation of hippuric acid by glycine junction of benzoic acid is present but deficient in preterm babes. Junction WITH GLUTATHIONE Cytosolic glutathione S-transferase ( GST ) is responsible for junction of glutathione. Catalysiss of conjugate of different electrophiles with decreased glutathione is the major manner by which GSTs metabolize carcinogens, exogenic and endogenous toxins. In pediatric within 12-24months, there is addition in GSTA1 and GSTA2 look to adult degree with norm of 3 crease and GSTM look increased to about 5 crease to adult degree at construct. In grownup liver there is no GSTP1 but it is present in newborns. GST activity and GSTP1 degree in female merely showed of import addition from less than 50 old ages to over 70 old ages ( Hoensch, H. et al. ) . Decision The increasing fluctuation between single in enzymes activity involved in drug metamorphosis coupled with other physiological factors make it hard to distinguish age effects on drug metamorphosis in relation to toxicity but a good cognition about the drugs pharmacokinetics is really of import to cognize patient population that requires dosage accommodation in order to forestall toxicity ( acute or chronic ) after exposure. A better apprehension of the specific drug metabolising enzymes with age fluctuation is besides critical in ordering drugs to patient population and in development of drugs in the patient population. Most drugs metabolized through the cytochrome p450 enzymes decreases with age every bit good as the nephritic riddance of most drugs decreases with age which can take to toxicity. Mentions Strolin Benedetti, M et Al. ( 2005 ) Differences in soaking up, distribution, metamorphosis and elimination between the paediatric and the grownup population. Expert Opin. Drug Metab. Toxicol. 1, 447-471 Cazeneuve, C. et Al. ( 1994 ) Biotransformation of caffeine in human liver microsomes from foetuss, newborns, babies and grownups. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 37, 405-412. Zeeh, J. et Al ( 1996 ) Influence of age, infirmity and liver map on the pharmacokinetics of brofaromine. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 49, 387-391 Simon, T. ( 2001 ) Variability of cytochrome P450 1A2 activity over clip in immature and aged healthy voluntaries. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 52, 601-604 Kinirons, M.T. and OMahony, M.S. ( 2004 ) Drug metamorphosis and ageing. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 57, 540-544 Cusack, B.J. ( 2004 ) Pharmacokinetics in older individuals. Am. J. Geriatr. Pharmacother. 2, 274-302 Koukouritaki, S.B et Al. ( 2004 ) Development look of human hepatic CYP2C9 and CYP2C19. J. pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 308, 965-974 Blanco, J.G. et Al. ( 2000 ) Human cytochrome P450 maximum activities in paediatric versus grownup liver. Drug Metab. Dispos. 28, 379-382 George, J. et Al. ( 1995 ) Age but non gender selectively affects look of single cytochrome P450 proteins in human liver. Biochem. Pharmacol. 50,727-730 Schmucker, D.L. ( 2001 ) Liver map and Phase I drug metabolim in th aged. A paradox. Drugs Aging 18, 837-851 Ishizawa, Y. et Al. ( 2005 ) The consequence of aging on the relationship between the cytochrome P450 2C19 genotype and omeprazole pharmacokinetics. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 44, 1179-1189 Foglia, J.P et Al. ( 1997 ) Plasma degrees of citalopram enantiomorphs and metabolites in aged patients. Psychopharmacol. Bull. 33, 109-112 Stevens, J.C. ( 2006 ) New positions on the impacts of cytochrome P450 3A look for paediatric pharmacological medicine. Drug Discov. Today 11, 440-445 De Wildt, S.N. et Al. ( 2002 ) Pharmacokinetics and metamorphosis of unwritten Versed in preterm babies. Br. J. clin. Pharmacol. 53, 390-392 Patki, K.C. ( 2004 ) Consequence of age on in vitro triazolam biotransformation in male human liver microsomes. J. pharmocol. Exp. Ther. 308, 874-879 Strolin Benedetti, M. et Al. ( 1992 ) Developmental facets of the monoamine-degrading enzymes monoamine oxidases. Dev. Pharmacol. Ther. 18, 191-200 Kornhuber, J. et Al. ( 1989 ) Growth of monoamine oxidase-A and -B in the human encephalon frontal cerebral mantle. Brain Res. 499, 81 Karg, E.et Al. ( 2001 ) Ferroxidases and xanthine oxidoreductase in plasma of healthy newborn babies. Free Radic. Res. 35, 555-561 Tayama, Y. et Al. ( 2007 ) Developmental alterations of aldehyde oxidase activity in immature Nipponese kids. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 81, 567-572 Eskura, I. et Al. ( 2006 ) Xanthine oxidase does non lend to impaired peripheral conduit arteria endothelium-dependent distension with ageing. J. Physiol. 571, 661-668 Ecobichon, D.J. and Stephens, D.S. ( 1971 ) Perinatal development of blood exterases. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 14, 41-47 Morselli, P.L. et Al. ( 1980 ) Clinical pharmacokinetics in neonates and babies. Clin. Pharmacokin. 5, 485-527 Puche, E. et Al. ( 1989 ) Serum aspirin-esterase activity in epileptic patients having intervention with Phenobarbital, diphenylhydantoin, carbamazepine and valproic acid. Int. J. Clin. Pharm. Res. IX, 55-58 Pope, C.N. et Al. ( 2005 ) Comparative carboxylesterase activities in babies and grownup liver and their in vitro sensitiveness to chlorpyrifos oxon.Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 42, 64-69 Abou Hatab, K. et Al. ( 2001 ) Relationship between age and plasma esterases. Age Aging 30, 41-45 Alam, S.M. et Al. ( 1977 ) Age related differences in salicylamide and acetaminophen junction in adult male. J. pediatr. 90, 130-135 Court, M.H. et Al. ( 2001 ) Interindividual variableness in acetaminophen glucuronidation by human liver microsomes: designation of relevant acetaminophen UDP-glucuronosyltransferase isoforms. J. pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 299, 998-1006 Strassburg, C.P. et Al. ( 2002 ) Developmental facets of human hepatic drug glucuronidation in immature kids and grownups. Gut 50, 259- 265 Temellini, A. et Al. ( 1991 ) Interindividual variableness in the glucuronidation and sulphation of ethinyloestradiol in human liver. Br. J. clin. Pharmacol. 31, 661-664 Tateishi, T. et Al. ( 1995 ) Influence of aging on the oxidative and conjugative metamorphosis of propranolol. Int. J. Clin. Pharmacol. Res. 5, 95-101 Miners, J.O. et Al. ( 1988 ) Comparison of paracetamol metamorphosis in immature grownup and aged males. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 35, 157-160 Wynne, H. et Al. ( 1990 ) The association of age and infirmity with paracetamol junction in adult male. Age Aging 19, 419-424 Sonne, J.et Al ( 1991 ) Single dosage pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of unwritten Serax in really aged institutionalised topics. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 31, 719-722 Hermann, R. et Al. ( 2003 ) Effects of age and sex on t6he temperament of retigabine. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 73, 61-70 Aksoy, I.A. et Al. ( 1993 ) Human liver dehydroepiandrosterone sulfotransferase: nature and extent of single fluctuation. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 54, 498-506 Temellini, A. et Al. ( 1993 ) Junction of benzoic acid with glycine in human liver and kidney: a survey on the interindividual variableness. Xenobiotica 23, 1427-1433 McCarver, D.G. and Hines, R.N. ( 2002 ) The growth of human drug metabolising enzymes: stage II junction enzymes and regulative mechanisms. J. pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 300, 361-366 Hoensch, H.et Al. ( 2006 ) Expression of glutathione enzymes system of human colon mucous membrane by localisation, gender and age. Curr. Med. Res. Opin. 22, 1075-1083 Ganiere-Monteli, C. et Al. ( 2004 ) phenotype and genotype for thiopurine methyltransferase activity in the Gallic Caucasic population: impact of age. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 60, 89-96 Johnson, T.N.et Al. ( 2006 ) Prediction of the clearance of 11 drugs and associated variableness in newborns, babies and kids. Clin. Pharmacokin. 45, 931-956 Strolin Benedetti, M. et Al. ( 2006 ) Engagement of enzymes other than CYPs in the oxidative metamorphosis of xenobiotics. Expert Opin. Drug Metab. Toxicol. 2, 895-921 Olive, G. ( 1991 ) Pharmacocinetique et biotransformation diethylstilbestrols medicines chez lenfant. Louvain Med. 110, 565-569 Oesterheld, J.R. ( 1998 ) A reappraisal of development facets of cytochrome P450. J. Child Adolescent Psychopharmacol. 8, 161-174 Kalow, W. and Tang, B.K. ( 1993 ) The usage of caffeine for enzyme checks: a critical assessment. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 53, 503-514 Blake, M.J. et Al. ( 2006 ) Consequence of diet on the development of drug metamorphosis by cytochrome p-450 enzymes in healthy babies. Pediatr. Res. 60, 717-723

Sampling With or Without Replacement

Sampling With or Without Replacement Statistical sampling can be done in a number of different ways. In addition to the type of sampling method that we use, there is another question relating to what specifically happens to an individual that we have randomly selected.   This question that arises when sampling is, After we select an individual and record the measurement of attribute were studying, what do we do with the individual? There are two options: We can replace the individual back into the pool that we are sampling from.We can choose to not replace the individual.   We can very easily see that these lead to two different situations.    In the first option, replacement leaves open the possibility that the individual is randomly chosen a second time.   For the second option, if we are working without replacement, then it is impossible to pick the same person twice.   We will see that this difference will affect the calculation of probabilities related to these samples. Effect on Probabilities To see how we handle replacement affects the calculation of probabilities, consider the following example question. What is the probability of drawing two aces from a standard deck of cards? This question is ambiguous.   What happens once we draw the first card?   Do we put it back into the deck, or do we leave it out?   We start with calculating the probability with replacement.   There are four aces and 52 cards total, so the probability of drawing one ace is 4/52. If we replace this card and draw again, then the probability is again 4/52. These events are independent, so we multiply the probabilities (4/52) x (4/52) 1/169, or approximately 0.592%. Now we will compare this to the same situation, with the exception that we do not replace the cards.   The probability of drawing an ace on the first draw is still 4/52. For the second card, we assume that an ace has been already drawn.   We must now calculate a conditional probability.   In other words, we need to know what the probability of drawing a second ace, given that the first card is also an ace. There are now three aces remaining out of a total of 51 cards. So the conditional probability of a second ace after drawing an ace is 3/51.   The probability of drawing two aces without replacement is (4/52) x (3/51) 1/221, or about 0.425%. We see directly from the problem above that what we choose to do with replacement has bearing on the values of probabilities.   It can significantly change these values. Population Sizes There are some situations where sampling with or without replacement does not substantially change any probabilities.   Suppose that we are randomly choosing two people from a city with a population of 50,000, of which 30,000 of these people are female. If we sample with replacement, then the probability of choosing a female on the first selection is given by 30000/50000 60%.   The probability of a female on the second selection is still 60%.   The probability of both people being female is 0.6 x 0.6 0.36. If we sample without replacement then the first probability is unaffected.   The second probability is now 29999/49999 0.5999919998..., which is extremely close to 60%.   The probability that both are female is 0.6 x 0.5999919998 0.359995. The probabilities are technically different, however, they are close enough to be nearly indistinguishable.   For this reason, many times even though we sample without replacement, we treat the selection of each individual as if they are independent of the other individuals in the sample. Other Applications There are other instances where we need to consider whether to sample with or without replacement. On example of this is bootstrapping. This statistical technique falls under the heading of a resampling technique. In bootstrapping we start with a statistical sample of a population. We then use computer software to compute bootstrap samples. In other words, the computer resamples with replacement from the initial sample.

Tom Perrotta's The Cosmic Significance of Britney Spears Essay

Tom Perrotta's The Cosmic Significance of Britney Spears - Essay Example When one attempts to find out the reason behind her cosmic significance, it is evident that she is so close to her family members and truthful to her boyfriend. She is cute, strictly religious, and down to earth. She feels proud of her southern identity and is conscious to preserve it forever. From a general viewpoint, she is able to withstand change in her life. She is amazingly unaffected by her global mega stardom. Moreover, she presents herself through two different ways. In her private life, she is shy but in public life she is so bold to express her opinion and ideas. Because of her unique personality, she enjoys the imposed musical identity. Moreover, she is ready to accept it as the part of her life. Her music is familiar to all and is easily enjoyable to music lovers. Her music is with a universal appeal and it exerts a strong influence to the whole humanity. Her music does not belong to an actual place, group or individual consciousness, but to humanity. Her cosmic signific ance is more evident from her music, which is universal, but never particular. The iconic stature that Britney exemplifies is not just that of a teen idol. She is more than that because pop stars are considered as cultural figures in America. In a multicultural and multiracial society, pop music is a way to exhibit race and celebrity. Britney is an era defining superstar, who is ready to find out answers to the questions on our existence and our future. She possesses more in common with other iconic artists like Elvis Presley, Madonna and Kurt Cobain. But her position is far ahead of these iconic artists. Perrotta went through Britney’s book namely, Heart to Heart, and its effect on him was terrific because it influenced and changed his opinion about her. Britney is portrayed in this book as a girl who is so simple and down to earth. When the author decided to complete the essay on Britney, it was the time of September 11

The use of Clozapine in the treatment of schizophrenia Essay

The use of Clozapine in the treatment of schizophrenia - Essay Example From the research it can be comprehended that it is the basic aim of health care systems to provide the highest quality of service possible to patients and thus novel ways to enhance service delivery are always being sought. Over the last two decades, health care has seen tremendous advancements in terms of both technology and practice and it is expected that this is a trend which will be kept up in the future. Among the most revolutionary health care aspects that have emerged during this period is Evidence-based practice (EBP). According to the National Library of Medicine Evidence-based practice is an approach to health care service provision which is guided by thoughtful integration of the best available scientific knowledge with clinical expertise. The medical practitioner can examine research data, clinical guidelines and other information tools in a bid to give the right diagnosis and thus quality treatment followed by reflection on the outcome which aid in improvements in the future. It is simply the integration of individual expertise and the best external evidence and patient values. Evidence-based Practice rightfully involves the best and most current research evidence with educational or clinical expertise and the relevant perspectives of stakeholders in order to ensure that the best possible decision is made for patients. Evidence-based Practice can be broken down into four steps that begin and end with the patient, and whose mastery defines expertise in the practice. After the four steps, implementation and re-evaluation follow. The first step involves formulating a focused clinical question after observing the patient. Such questions are carefully thought out foreground queries that generally have answers. They serve as the anchors to the other three steps of Evidence-based Practice. A mnemonic approach involving examination of the patient, the possible intervention(s) and comparisons and finally the outcome of interest is one of the best approach es put forward for developing a good foreground question. This is usually referred to as PICO (Patient, Intervention, Comparison and Outcome) (Lang 2004, p. 91). Booth (2006, pp. 358-359) argues that challenging practice rituals is a good way to come up with focused clinical questions. The primary goal is conversion of a precise and sometimes unclear information need into a query that can be answered. The type of questions that one can come up with may be predictive, interventional or explorative. The next step after the formulation of a focused question is undertaking to search for evidence. Information literacy is important here as the practitioner is required to match the PICO question with a relevant study design. Internet is quite an important tool here as it facilitates the gathering of information, and the next step in search for information is selecting on a relevant database to use, a decision influences by the time constraints and degree of information being sought. Some o f the studies usually used include systematic reviews, randomized control studies and case control studies and the choice is influenced by the PICO (Lang 2004, p. 92). Rodrigues (2000, p. 1345) is of the opinion that randomized clinical trials and systematic reviews of peer-reviewed primary research work provide coherent and systematic evidence on the effectiveness of interventions taken. The third step of Evidence-based